Write an annotation entry consisting of a Citation, a brief Summary, Essay - 6

Write an annotation entry consisting of a Citation, a brief Summary, and a short paragraph Evaluation of the text below - Essay Example w implementation in the American society by exposing the flaws in the present justice system, which is crucial for ensuring equality in law application in the future. Goodman and Gonzà ¡lez present a scenario in which the police in Ferguson, Missouri apply the law discriminatively. Critically dissecting the text, racial discrimination is perpetuated using the very justice system that is expected to protect all citizens of the United States. There is overt discrimination in the manner in which the police handle individuals of different racial backgrounds, with the blacks facing the wrath of the law. It is my belief that a just legal system should ensure that laws are applied equal to all people irrespective of their races or ethnicity. Assessing the presentation, several questions emerge. Are African Americans inherently inclined to crime? Is the police department practicing racism under the cover of law implementation? Nonetheless, the voices in the in the presentation offers a cred ible argument by citing the U.S. Justice Department confirmation discrimination in the police and city courts in Ferguson, Missour. The presentation is inspiring as it hints at a possibility of improving the law to ensure a better society devoid of racial discrimination in future. Goodman , Amy and Juan Gonzà ¡lez. Michelle Alexander: Ferguson Shows Why Criminal Justice System of "Racial Control" Should Be Undone. A daily independent global news hour, Wednesday, March 4, 2015. Accessed March 12, 2015.

Chinese Medicine

Chinese Medicine Introduction For over 2000 years, traditional Chinese medicine was the only medical therapy consisting of various forms of  herbal medicine,acupuncture,massage,exercise, and dietary therapy for treatment illnesses. With the arrival of the missionaries from the west, a new form of medical therapy which based on treatment using chemicals and surgery was introduced to China in the 19th century. This not only provided an alternative medical treatment for Chinese, it also brought in scientific, social and political upheavals to China in the 19th and 20th century. Medical Services in 19th Century China The first western medical service was introduced to Macau, a Portuguese’s colony at the time, by Rev Robert Morrison1 (1782-1834) in 1820. Interestingly, one of his objectives of his effort was to find out whether Chinese traditional herbal medicine would offer no additional healing for the Westerners. In 1828, a Christian surgeon, Dr Thomas Colledge2 (1796 – 1879) opened a hospital in Guangzhou with his belief of Christians had a duty to treat the sick people of China. By 1835, Dr Colledge cooperated with Dr Peter Parker (1804 1888), a Protestant medical missionary and foreign Christian residents in Guangzhou formed the Medical Missionary Society of China. The new hospital appealed to the locals despite their suspicious altitude towards foreigners’ intention. By 1840, the hospital had provided over 9,000 treatments to the local patients. By 1892, over 60 hospitals and 40 dispensaries were established by the missionaries. There were over 120 male and female western medical personnel plus a corps of trained native assistants to provide services for these facilities. The hospital annual report of 1895 stated that over half a million patients were treated and over 70,000 operations were performed. Before the Opium War, the hospital provided access of the missionary opportunity to contact locals who otherwise were not permitted to preach in public and are restricted to reside at the â€Å"Thirteen Hong† at Guangzhou. Some patients considered allowing foreign doctors to treatment gave a favour them, some did not accept the religion of their doctors, however, many patients converted to Christianity. The introduction of western medicine also raised the Chinese women social status. It was Chinese social custom to restrict men and women contact at the time. Hence, female patients were reluctant to be treated by male doctors. The missionaries therefore had to bring in female doctors from the west to provide treatment to female patients. Dr Mary H. Fulton (1854 – 1927), a female missionary doctor was sent by the Foreign Missions Board of the Presbyterian Church to found the first medical college foe woman, Hackett Medical College for Women in Guangzhou in 1902. By 1915, the college had 60 students; all became Christians at the influence of Dr Fulton. The college achieved its aim to spread Christianity and western medicine, as well as women social status in the Chinese society. Medical Services in Hong Kong In Hong Kong, a British colony at the time, Tung Wah Hospital3 was established in 1870 which was the first hospital in China providing Chinese medicine services in western hospital mode. By 1887, the first teaching institution, the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese (the predecessor of the Faculty of medicine of theUniversity of Hong Kong)was established by the London Missionary Society. The new institution not only introduced breakthrough in the research and development of western medicine in China, it also brought the first graduate, Dr SUN Yat-sen4 (1866 1925), a Christian himself who led the Chinese Revolution and toppled the Qing Dynasty, to establish the Republic of China in 1911, profoundly changes the history of China. The Opium War The introduction of western medicine in China also changed the history of China. Opium5 which was found to be a good remedy for nervous disorders and its sedative and tranquilizing properties was also introduced into China by western surgeons. However, opium was also used by the British Government to balance their trade deficit with China. They grew opium in British India and sold it to China for exchange of silver. When the Emperor Daoguang of Qing Dynasty banned the smoking and trading of opium in 1838, the British began the First Opium War with the beginning of annexation of Hong Kong, opened up of ports and a series of unfair treaties with the subsequent turmoil in China for over 100 years. Recognising the additive and social destructive nature of the opium smoking, the missionaries raised against the trading of opium both in their home countries and in China6. They also set up clinic to provide medical service to opium smokers to kick off their addiction, hence providing more op portunity for them to preach Christianity. Conclusion Western medicine went hands in hand with missionaries from the west to preach and convert local into Christians. By doing so, it also changed the history of China, opened up the horizons of Chinese people, turned imperial China into a republic and profoundly affect the world, with its effect still felt today. References Starr J Barton â€Å"The Legacy of Robert Morrison†, International Bulletin of Missionary Research, April 1998 Fu L, â€Å"The protestant medical missions to China: Dr Thomas Richardson Colledge (1796-1879) and the founding of the Macao Ophthalmic Hospital†, Journal of Medical Biography 3Tung Wah Hospital website http://www.tungwah.org.hk/?content=314 4Britannica http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/573697/Sun-Yat-sen 5Allingham V. Philip, â€Å"England and China: The Opium Wars, 1839-60†, Victorian Web, Lakehead University 6Kathleen L. Lodwick, â€Å"Crusaders against Opium: Protestant Missionaries in China, 1874-1917†,Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1996 SECTION B Question1 Introduction There were several outbreaks of plague in the history which include the 1984 plague outbreak in Hong Kong and the pneumonic plague outbreak in Manchuria in 1910 – 1911. The 1984 plague was also known as the â€Å"black death† due to the black coloring of whole body before or after death, which is later being identified as the bubonic plague. The pneumonic plague is unique in which it was exclusively pneumonic (infection of the lungs). Patients who are infected with the pneumonic plague will present with coughing, often with hemoptysis (coughing up blood), headache, weakness etc. Although both diseases caused outbreak, different control and measures were done by the local government at that period. Control and measures in Hong Kong in 1894 The plague outbreak in Hong Kong was mainly associated with the poor sanitation and dense population of Hong Kong at that period. In order to cope with the outbreak of plague the British government did several measures in order to prevent the spread of the disease and to prevent new cases from emerging. This included forced disinfection of affected houses, rapid disposal of corpses, building of the Blake Garden to reduce population density and house to house searches for infected people. The infected will then be isolated on the hospital ship – Hygeia. But due to the non-reluctant response of the Chinese population, patients were later transferred to Kennedy Town glassworks which was converted for use as a temporary hospital. The government later built a Bacteriology institute with the recruitment of a bacteriologist, Dr. William Hunter to Hong Kong for the investigation of the cause of outbreak. Control and measures in Manchuria in 1910 – 1911 During the pneumonic plague outbreak, the cause of the disease could not be identified. So it was agreed that no cure for the pneumonic plague was available by that time1: the mortality was proved to be one hundred percent. Without antibiotic at that period, the only way to prevent the spread of the disease was quarantine and isolation. The Chinese were isolated into train cars for several days. They were not let out until no one displaying any sign or symptoms of pneumonic plague. If one plague case was identified, others in the car would be considered to have a poor prognosis. Because the location of outbreak was close to Japan and Russia, there was collaboration between countries for the control of disease2. In need of medical help from Russia and Japan, the Chinese government at that period sought help by calling for an international plague conference. While the etiology of the pneumonic plague was still being investigated, isolation was used as an effective method to prevent the spread of the disease. Autopsy was also done to investigate the cause of the disease3. In later stage, new bacteriological techniques such as culturing helped identifying the cause of the epidemic. Similarities and differences There are several similarities between the battle against pneumonic plague and the measures to control the plague in Hong Kong in 1894. Firstly, in both cases public health was introduced to the affected areas. In western medicine public health focuses on the surveillance and the prevention of disease. Isolation was used in both cases in order to prevent the spread and the deterioration of the disease. Different measures such as sanitation and rapid disposal of corpses in the 1894 plague in Hong Kong all refers to public health measures for the disease. This is important because by that time there was no way of treating both diseases, so public health became the only way to prevent the spread of the diseases and to control the epidemic. The treatment for plague(antibiotics) was not discovered in 1940s, about 30 years after the pneumonic plague. In addition, modern western medicine played a large role in coping with the outbreaks in both cases. In both cases a lot of modern western advanced sciences were used to investigate the diseases. For example, bacteriology culture and autopsy were used to investigate the cause of pneumonic plague whereas dissection of rats and bacteriology study were used in the 1894 plague. In comparison traditional Chinese medicine did not play a large role in either the prevention of the disease or the treatment of the disease. Moreover, investigations of the diseases were both done simultaneously with the measures and controls of the outbreaks. In other words, controls and measures like isolation were done before the identification of the cause of the disease in order to prevent the spread of the disease. One major difference of the control and measures between the two cases is the involvement of other countries in pneumonic plague. The coping of the pneumonic plague involved collaborations on the international level whereas the 1984 plague only involved isolated research without collaborations. This can be explained by the location of outbreak. As the outbreak of pneumonic plague may endanger the resident population in Russia and Japan, the two countries took part in the plague control. Whereas the 1894 plague happened in Hong Kong which will not affect other countries based on its location. Conclusion In conclusion the measures and control of the pneumonic plague and the 1894 plague outbreak in Hong Kong are similar in many ways. Both cases are very important as they show us the introduction of science and theory of western medicine such as public health into China at that period when the population knew little about western medicine. The idea of public health also helped saving a lot of people’s life at that period by preventing the spread of the disease. References: Richard Pearson Strong and the .urnal es:hat period by preventing the spread of the disease. of western medicine into China Hong Kong are similar in many wayManchurian Epidemic of Pneumonic Plague 1910 1911, Eli Chernin Oxford Journal, Mark Gamsa, The epidemic of pneumonic plague in Manchuria 1910-1911 3 Contagions The Great Pneumonic Plague of1910-1911: https://contagions.wordpress.com/2013/03/21/the-great-pneumonic-plague-of-1910-1911/

Ergotism Essay -- Health, Diseases, Medicine

The symptoms described in this case such as headaches, skin irritation, painful cramps and seizures are all common in a disease known as Ergotism. Ergotism is caused by the ingestion of alkaloids (ergotamines) produced by the fungus Claviceps purpurea (C. purpurea), which infects mainly Secale cereal (rye) and other cereals. This results in ergot poisoning (Alderman et al., 1999). All species of Claviceps are given the general term ergot and the majority of Claviceps species are restricted to only one or several grass genera. The exception is common ergot caused by C. purpurea, which contains a host range beyond 200 species of grasses (Alderman et al., 1999). C. purpurea, unlike other Claviceps species is distributed throughout the world and can survive in different temperature climates (including a colder places such as Southern England), further suggesting it is the most likely causative agent. Ergotism can be divided into two groups of symptoms, convulsive and gangrenous. Convulsive ergotism is usually characterized by nervous dysfunction such as wry neck, which was reported in the past as convulsions. The fact that many people died from gangrene clearly suggests that the ergotism suffered is not convulsive, as symptoms of gangrene were not present. Gangrene develops when the supply of blood is cut off to the affected part (ischemia) due to infection, trauma or vascular disease with the most common sites being the fingers, toes and hands. This further suggests that the condition is gangrenous ergotism, this can be supported by physical examination of the patient and blood tests. A CT scan or MRI can help to find out the amount of gas present and the extent to which tissues are damaged, however these tests were obviously n... ...illion of these occurring in children younger than 5 years (Epidemiological Record, 2007). In patients in developing countries such as Cameroons, invasive pneumococcal pneumonia has a high mortality rate (WHOInt, 2003). In terms of treatment and prophylaxis, appropriate antibiotics can help to treat S. pneumoniae infections via outpatient treatment. Prior to antibiotic therapy, steroids can be given in children older than 6 weeks suffering with possible pneumococcal meningitis and should be given before or at the time of the first dose of antibiotics (Pickering et al,.2009). The use of penicillin, ceftriaxone or ampicillin sulbactam is usually appropriate with hospitalized children, therapy should account for local resistance patterns. Immunocompromised children suspected of pneumococcal pneumonia should take vancomycin and a broad spectrum cephalosporin.

Saving Private Ryan

The ingenious film, directed by Steven Spielberg, ‘Saving Private Ryan' is in my opinion the most realistic film to ever portray the D- Day landings. Many critics have even said it to be so vivid that the only element missing is the smell. In the Film's first battle scene, lasting twenty- five minutes in total, it brings all reality into the living nightmare that took place so long ago. Brought back into life by Spielberg, I will show how he creates excitement and tension in the most realistic of ways. I will discuss how he portrays the characters, his use of sound and last of all, his use of camera shots and how they contribute to the overall effect of the scene. Spielberg manifests an overall memorable opening scene and I will show just how. Released on the 24th July 1998, ‘Saving Private Ryan' promised to break all blockbuster records and go straight to the top. Spielberg stunned the world with the film's realism and authenticity, proving that his renowned reputation is not just hearsay, but fact. The plot is loosely inspired by the true story of the Niland brothers, where two of the four were killed and the third, presumed dead. The decision was made to retrieve the fourth, to prevent a national uproar and from a whole family from being wiped out due to War. The plot, proving exciting, brings much controversy over the mission to risk eight lives for the sake of one. The whole epic World War 11 drama cost approximately $65 million in total, most of which was spent on the graphic detail and effects in the first battle scene of the film. Although the twenty-five minute battle scene is complex cinematically and visually, the plot of the beach landings follows through reasonably simply. The scene starts off in focus of a small regiment of troops, quivering inside the hull of a boat, petrified by the sound of oncoming machine gun fire. The ramps fall down as a wheel spins round, pronouncing the ends to most of their lives. The boat opens out as many are shot dead instantly by the flurry of bullets thrust toward them. Few make it out a live before they have to plough through thousands of dead up the beach. As the battle scene cuts into view, the first character to be seen visually is Captain Miller. This immediately indicates that he is high up in rank and so, instantly gives him a commanding presence among the craft. The calmness of his voice even seems to sedate the tension in the atmosphere. However, the initial part of him to be seen is his pair of trembling hands. This conventionally is a sign of fear and to some, may show a weakness. Leaders are not usually associated with fear; stereotypically they are fearless. Spielberg has used this ironically, to show the realism within his character. All the soldiers fighting on that day were normal citizens fighting for pride and country. They all experienced fear. On D- day there were no fearless war heroes such as John Wayne and this is why Captain Miller, along with all the other troops, is shown in trepidation. As the shot moves outward, the whole of Captain Miller's body is revealed. His appearance can be seen and again realism is reinforced. The person acting as Captain Miller, Tom Hanks does not have the stereotypical appearance of a War hero; he is small, placid and in lack of the muscle attributes usually associated with a clichid soldier. Through this casting Spielberg conveys a message. The men fighting on that day were normal. They weren't all large men built of muscle, who could defy death and so, the person cast as Captain Miller isn't either. Through this, the character of Captain Miller is made realer to the audience, thus making the film more accurate and historically correct. On the beach, after the regiment has landed, the Captain experiences a brief period where his emotions and conscience are thrown into turmoil. The horror of what is happening around him starts to sink in, as all terror results in a mental breakdown. The fact that he does not just march through the beach and that he is affected shows his compassion and empathy. It shows he is a caring human being; one who is gravely affected by the horrific things being done to his comrades. Through this period of collapse, Spielberg creates lots of tension, as the audience, who have gradually started to become attached to this realistic character, are willing him to snap out of it and gain his composure. They want him to get out of this situation and lead his troops up the beach. Another character that stands prominent in this scene is that of Sergeant Horvath. Spielberg has used Horvath's character to contrast with Captain Miller, and this is seen even in the first few seconds of his dibut. Immediately as the audience set eyes upon his broad build, it can be seen that he is much more robust than the Captain and that he conforms more to the stereotypical image of a fictional war hero. I think that Spielberg has highlighted this point emphasise the normality and ordinary image of Captain Miller. He has done this to show that soldiers were all shapes and sizes. Through this contrast made, the realism of both characters is increased as they both can be recognised uniquely. Horvath and Miller again contrast in their methods of dealing with the trepidation and horror thrown at them. Whereas the Captain releases his petrified state through the constant trembling of his hands, Horvath allows his fear to disperse through chewing. Through Horvath's different reaction, Spielberg defines his character more, making him more realistic as he deals with situations in a different way. As soldiers in real life all reacted uniquely depending on their personalities, Horvath does too. The audience then can identify better with him, likening him to people they know, thus recognising him as a real type of person, one who is unique. Although Captain Miller and Sergeant Horvath contrast in many ways, together they form a prevailing partnership. In every order relayed by the Captain, the Sergeant reinforces it, thus portraying his regard, proving that he has an immense admiration for the man. Horvath continuously stays close to the Captain, waiting for his command and looking out for him. Spielberg uses him as the Captains right arm. Everything about Horvath, from his bear like face, down to his cumbersome build, shout; protector! In view of this, the audience take a liking to him and confide comfort in the fact that Horvath will protect and bring their ‘everyman' (the Captain) to safety. Spielberg uses the relationship between the two characters to excite the audience, as he shows that War is so out of the ordinary, that it brought together people in friendships who otherwise wouldn't have done so. Captain Miller and Sergeant Horvath have such a strong relationship during this scene that excitement arouses among the audience, as they know that together the two will survive. Private Jackson, the regiment's sniper is another character that has an essential role in the battle scene. His preliminary appearance is in the landing craft, immediately before the ramps descend. His face, being one of pure dread is an open book to the audience. He is so terrified that his expression and the first act that he commits, a kiss on a cross, show that he believes that there is no hope for survival left. It is as though he thinks that a kiss on the cross is the last action he is going to do and that if God is ever going to come to his aid, let it be now. I think that Spielberg has used this crucifix and his expression of misgiving, to draw compassion for the Private, but also to show how close death is to God. Immense suspense is created through the terror in Jackson's eyes. Private Jackson is not focused upon much during the struggle to gain ground and progress up the beach, however is substantial in the climax of the Scene. In this section of the scene, there is a long pause where the camera focuses upon the concentration on Jackson's face. He is speaking to God as he prepares to shoot and kill the Germans. During this moment of prayer, Jackson is in the action, yet alone and buried in responsibility. The long, seemingly calm pause is interspersed with other images of the dying, frantically praying to God in midst of all Chaos. Spielberg has used this range of images varied together, to prolong Jackson's pause, generating tension as the audience anticipate the outcome. The different images are of various scenarios, where like Jackson they are praying to God in their time of need. Although the requirements of God are very different, this just shows that whatever situation that people are in, the natural instinct at the end of the day, is to call for a supernatural being, to come at their rescue. The element of spiritual confiding in this, show again just how close death is to God and this is clearly portrayed when Jackson say's: â€Å"I am close to you Lord†. This is said moments before the Private shoots. He at this point is unsure of his survival and shows that he knows that he is incredibly close to dying. Spielberg lets the audience know this too and creates ample suspense through the pause. All tension that has been lingering is completely released when Private Jackson shoots and kills the remaining Germans. At this point the enemy onslaught has been destroyed and the American Soldiers are safe. Spielberg uses this point to release all of the excitement and tension that has been building up, transferring the audience into a relative calm. In the whole of the Battle scene, death is an element not escaped from. Spielberg has chosen to portray War how it really was, holding nothing back. In real life, death is not heroic; it is a tragedy that brings fear into the hearts of all men. It was not attractive, it was horrific and to keep it in line with realism. Spielberg too had to show it in this way. During the Scene, everywhere you turn, there is a person dying a painful death, with screams pronouncing the bodies awash with blood. Spielberg creates compassion among the audience, with empathy for the injured. However, he also arouses tension as the thought that maybe one of their favoured characters will be next, loiters in their minds. Spielberg has chosen to show death in such graphic detail, to keep nothing back from the audience. He wants to show it in a realistic way and I think wants to make it as authentic as possible. In other fictional War films, the Soldiers die heroically and for a patriotic reason. In reality, the Soldiers did not want to die and were scared out of their wits. Spielberg has portrayed it much truer to life and has steered away from these stereotypical films into reality, in order to keep the whole film's authenticity as honest as possible. Unlike the Americans during the scene, the audience does not see the Germans' faces. The camera shot restricts the view to distinguish only their backs, shoulders and arms from the rear. Spielberg has done this to dehumanise them, taking away the audiences empathy for their emotions. The eyes are said to be the ‘windows into your soul' and by masking their faces the audience cannot see them and therefore can't sympathise with their emotional state. The Germans were human and they too were going through the same trauma as the Americans. However, Spielberg wanted to get the audience biased toward the allies and so stopped the audience from having any compassion for the ‘enemy'. By doing this, Spielberg creates tension as the audience don't want the Germans (whom they have no emotional attachment to) to kill the ‘much loved' Americans. One machine gun post poses the greatest threat of all, mowing down life by life in every careless movement. The regiment of Soldiers, led by Captain Miller, work as a unified team to break past the barbed wire and screams of the dying. Taking cover, with the aid of their sniper, they kill they gunners and advance past the German bunker. All tension is then released; we know that for now that they are safe. Spielberg has used the characters in such a way, to reinforce the overall realism in the scene. By using one stereotypical character to represent the professional soldiers fighting on that day, he contrasts the rest of the characters to him, emphasising their statuses as average civilians. Through this contrast, realism is put into each of the characters as the realisation that these men were ordinary, comes into the minds of each spectator. Spielberg exploits the character's thoughts and feelings, making the audience connect with them, thus producing tension at the uncertainty of their survival. Through these points made by Spielberg, as a teenage male, I can appreciate the fact that these soldiers were not much older than I and that they weren't all war heroes, but young, petrified men. Sound is another resource greatly used by Spielberg. The ever-loud rapidity of war seems to up the pace of the scene constantly, heightening the adrenaline of the audience and bringing their physical emotional rate in parallel with the chaos on the screen. Spielberg produces immense excitement, as the audience cannot bear to look away. Every moment is unpredictable and so is the sound along with it and this is extremely exciting and tense for the spectator. The last and possibly the greatest used of all three techniques is that of camera work. Spielberg has used this element to create immense tension in the scene. He has done this most notably through a deception early on, by killing off characters that the audience have become attached to and so, simulating an emotion of loss. Through out the scene he has used a long lingering shots to contrast with the rapid staccato of battle, emphasising certain important pauses, thus also generating suspense. The shots of death throughout the scene are extremely moving and certainly cause every spectator to stop and think about the brave men who died on 6th June 1944. Saving Private Ryan It was an inspiration that the private Ryan should be sent safely to his home. The part in which the General read the Letter to Mrs. Bixby, written by Abraham Lincoln to sympathize the mother of five sons believed to have been killed in the American Civil War it is the film back to Rodat's Civil War inspiration. Spielberg in this film has innovated a style of direction. The director has made enormous efforts to make the movie seem real to the viewers. For this purpose, a ‘first person’ camera has been used and the cameras have not been installed right through the large scene, to show the actions, because due to first person camera, the viewer can eye witness the whole environment presented by the director. And as a result, throughout the movie; the consequence on the viewer is a feeling of actually being â€Å"present† during the scenes the scenes as intense as the assault on the beachhead and during the other action sequences. The viewer mind does not feel like a spectator, but rather as an interactive part of a moment in time. To give the real impact; underwater cameras were also used. Through these cameras fighting scenes under the water were clearly available to the viewers to witness, they could even see bullets striking the soldiers under the water. A huge amount of fake blood was used to make the viewer feel the scene real. By these efforts of the director the viewer gets actually involved and feels the dreadful environment of the war. In the beginning of the movie Tom Hanks who played the role of Captain John Miller leaded the company on the D-Day in the fight for Omaha beach. And now he is being sent on a risky mission in which he has to rescue a soldier. When the World War II was on going, the news is given to Chief of Staff, General Marshall that during the war, three brothers of the same family have died. The three brothers have died in action. And three letters were sent to their mother having the news of the death of her three sons on the same day, and their mother, Mrs. Ryan, could not bear this as it was very painful to her. And then he learns that a fourth son is also a soldier and he might be alive, the General plans to send a unit to find him and bring him back, in spite of being told that it's highly doubtful that he is still alive and the area that he was known to be at is very risky. As it was still a great chance that could alleviate the grief of Mrs. Ryan; the army did not miss the opportunity when they learnt that there is a fourth brother whose name was Private James Ryan. So it was decided to send the squad to locate him so that he can go back to his mother. So the unit consisting of 8 men is sent to find him but as affirmed it's very unsafe and one by one, each of them dies. It was a risky mission and the lives of soldiers were in danger. Captain Miller has the task to find Private James Ryan. On the way to Ramelle, Miller makes a decision to take the chance to neutralize a small German machine gun position near to an abandoned radar station. In the resulting fight the squad's medic, Wade (Ribisi) is gravely wounded. The last surviving German wraths the, squad members except Upham (Davies) because he used to be his friend. Miller decides to let the German walk away and capitulate himself to the next allied patrol. Reiben is no longer confident in the leadership of Miller and he declares his purpose to desert, brings about a tense disagreement with Horvath (Sizemore) that intimidates to split the squad apart until Miller finds a solution to the situation and reveals his origins, on which the squad had made a bet and after this Reiben decides to stay. The squad finally arrives to Ramelle where they demolish a German scouting unit with the help of some American paratroopers and one of them was Ryan. In Ramelle the unit gets regrouped. The American army defended the town and Ryan comes to know about the death of his brothers and the rescue mission. Ryan refuses to leave his makeshift unit, and demands that he want to help defend the bridge against a future German counter-attack. Miller unwillingly agrees and allowed Ryan to stay and orders his unit to help guard the bridge in the forthcoming battle. Miller takes command and sets up the defense with manpower and resources they have which were not very sufficient. Towed Flak 38 cannon and half-tracks were owned by the Germans. Thus they were well equipped. The defense operation was leaded by Captain Miller. Americans fought well and made the Germans face heavy casualties. But Germans have killed many Americans squad members. The American unit was devastated by Germans. The defenders had to leave the bridge because the German Tankers had made them suffer a lot . The bridge gets blown by the Americans but on the same time Captain Miller gets injured by the German. An American soldier destroyed the tank when it was about to reach the bridge. The American Army after this advanced even more and defeated the remaining German forces. But only few of American soldiers could survive which included: Ryan, Reiben and Upham. In the last moments of Miller; the last words which he uttered were this: â€Å"James†¦ earn this. Earn it. † (Spielberg 1998) Now the elderly man is being shown which was shown in the beginning of the movie as well. He is actually Ryan and he is at the grave of Miller. Ryan wanted to prove in front of Miller that he has spent his life as a good man. To get the confirmation he requests his wife to say that he has lived as a ‘good man'. And he has not let down Miller and the sacrifice he made for him. COMPARISON OF SAVING PRIVATE RYAN AND WAR BETWEEN GEORGIA AND RUSSIA: The war between Georgia and Russia can be compared to this movie in several ways; in fact all the wars can be compared to each other, as their consequences are always the same, each and every war results in bloodshed and loss of property and really precious lives. The attack of Georgia resembles Germany’s attack that began the World War II. The blood shed rate is high in this war also; it has also caused thousands of people and is the peril to world harmony. As both the nations are well equipped and do not hesitate in causing damages to the opponents. The 2008 war formally began on August 7, 2008 with a military attack by Georgia into one of two provinces, which had affirmed independence sixteen years ago in 1992. Russian quickly reacted with a large scale vengeance in the province and later invaded into Georgia proper. There are various comparisons between the ongoing war of Russia and Georgia with the movie Saving Private Ryan, some of which are discussed in details below: LOSS OF LIVES: So many people have lost there lives in both the depictions of war, i. . the Georgia and Russia war and the events of WWII that have been presented in the movie. Rivers of blood are flowing and everywhere in the environment cries can be heard, war is the second name of devastation. Blood and only blood can be seen all around. The reality of war is extremely brutal. WEAPONS USED: The means of attacking the opponents are almost the same in the movie and the Russia Georgia war. Massive firepower was used in both of them. Tanks attacked the militants as well as the civilians and also jets were used for the attacks. THE REASONS BEHIND THE ATTACK: The causes of both the wars were unknown initially; as both the attacks were made unilaterally, and then the suffering nations had to counter attack in their defense. In the Russia Georgia war, heavy bombardment started from Georgia’s side and in the movie the assault began from the side of Germany. CONCLUSION: This description of war and the portrayal of war which the movie â€Å"Saving Private Ryan† presents seem the same; by reading all these details we imagine blood and painful voices all around. Not only the militants but the civilians also equally suffer; just as the movie has presented the war; the actual war between Georgia and Russia is equally cruel. The war is always horrible, whether we see it in reality or through any other medium. The sketch this movie makes in the mind of the viewer is the actual representation of brutalities of war. Another comparison one can find between these two can be the loss of lives of the militants which so sincerely fight for the defense of the nation and yet meet very cruel deaths. War is nothing but an extreme threat to the people and our mother earth.

Comparing Gods and Goddesses Essay

Years ago, women did not have much power as they do now. Women sat back and took orders from their husbands. Whatever is asking of them to do the women would have to carry out the order with no feedback and nobody jesters. Women were more humble to men and they listened and believed whatever men told them. All women knew how to do was to be a homemaker. Women did not have a problem with staying home cooking, cleaning, ironing, and taking care of the children. Women kept everything in order at home. The one thing women did not do in the home years ago was keep track of the bills. The men did the bill back then, because they were the ones bringing home the money. When it came to spending any money for the house or for the children, the man was in charge. Women were to let the men know what was needed and they will go out and get it. Today women are different; Women are more attractive and keep themselves up. Women do not stay at home and take care of the children. The women today work, go to school, take care the children, and the home. The men today are taking the back seat. The women are in control. In some households, the women are telling the men what to do. The women today have power. To the children the women can fix anything. The men sometimes have the same thoughts. Many look up to the women. The women can heal the sick and feed the hungry and cloth the naked with very little money. Zeus a Greek God had a daughter by the name of Athena. Athena was the Greek Goddess of wisdom. She is fair, strong and very merciful to all. Athena was independent and didn’t rely on anyone. She was also known as one of the three virgin goddesses. Athena was the type of women who didn’t worry about being romanced by a male. She wasn’t concerned with marriage either. To refer back to today’s culture; Athena is what you call a, â€Å"career woman. † She was always busy doing something. The modern women today are all work and no play. Greek goddess by the name of Artemis was as strong as an ox. She doesn’t need a male to protect her. Artemis is the defender and guardian of all women in childbirth. She also loves the wilderness. So she protects those women too. Artemis dislikes men because they are of no use to her. She isn’t interested in getting married either because she feels that it takes away from a women’s freedom. So Artemis is very close to her female friends. They walk the forest together all the time. Unlike Athena, Artemis doesn’t really care to deal with the city life. She would rather be in the wilderness with the animals. Even though Artemis disliked men, she allowed the young boys to come and learn new things at her sanctuary. So she wasn’t as bad as the people thought she was. She was just a strong minded woman who loved nature. She loved being outdoors. Artemis is a great defender to all. Unlike Artemis, Athena wore a helmet and walked around holding a shield. She was rational and very intelligent. She was wise and a peacemaker. She is powerful and strong like Artemis. She defends her people in war but is also a peacemaker. Artemis is young and beautiful and wears leaves to cover her body. She doesn’t cover her legs. The costume that she wears could possibly cause problems with the Greek gods because of the way it looks. She feels that her costume represents sacrificed animals. It could represent breast and fruits also. But goddess’s views were very different from the Gods. Gods are usually described in terms of the various sociopolitical roles that they fulfill. † The function of the god myths are to explain phenomena to fasten a culture, record and pass on historical events, set example for people, and set behavior standards for generation to follow. Natural phenomena’s like thunder, lightening, miracles, and seasonal changes are all associated with god myths. God myths explain these phenomena’s that people find hard to understand. For example, the Myth Persephone and Hades started by the Greeks to explain winter and why it happens. Myths of the gods and are also created and function as explanations for happenings after death occurrences of certain miracles, and the creation of the Earth. Function of myth is to justify and validate the ritual practices and cultic celebrations. At time myth are also etiological in its function, in trying to explain the causes of certain customs and practices or how a particular name of the place originated. In traditional societies myth has an educational value, it was used to introduce or stress a particular moral value. People needing to believe is a common element in all society if you get people to believe in what you are saying the will follow. Myth by nature depicts a time period that is usually a remote past, in which gods and goddesses are the chief characters. A myth usually points to an unknown transcendental reality in symbolic form. It has a tremendous psychological impact on the listeners as it makes the listeners almost believe that those things really happened. Religious people have sacred narratives, call myths, which explain how things got the way they are. Proverbs and legends escribe wisdom and phenomenal exploits â€Å"in ordinary, profane time,† myths portray the work of spiritual power in arranging the existing order â€Å"in primordial, sacred time’ (Loewen 1969b, 150). National myths describe how tribes and nations came into being. Deity myths recount relationships between humanity and divinity: Spirit myths depict the origin and functions of lower spiritual beings. Sickness myths reveal ancient sources and causes of illness. Cosmic myths describe the origin and cause of catastrophic events, such as earthquakes, lightning, thunder, drought, rain, and eclipses. Describe the elements and function of god myth just depends on the cultures and what they have been told to believe. Just like us as human we are taught to believe what we have been taught from generation to generation from our ancestor something are believable and something’s just are not but they are not question. God is often portrayed like a person who is outside us. He controls the world from outside like a king controls his subjects. He is often called Superman who moves the earth and the heaven. God is in control of the female and male divine culture. The female and male divine possess different elements and functions starting in early era of time and carried in today’s era. The male is considered the stronger, aggressive, masculine and brutish image. The female is cunningly, not weak with an inner strength voice that speaks to her soul. The male divine is the protector of the house, the provider, and control the needs of the household. The male divine only cater to his needs and not respect the female desires. The early eras of life the female was expect to stay at home and take care of the house, children, and male and not enter the working world. Society today has changed whereas the female is working and supporting the family needs and stills mange the household. Although society has continued to change the male divine found switching the roles play by staying at home and supporting the family needs. The role play has impact a different outlook on life in the male divine. Technically the female and male divine is different hormones, brains functions, and the heritance of traits from family heritage. The female is strong minded in varies subject and aspect that affects the controlling of the household. The male divine still does not grip the concept that the female divine is powerful and put here to help support the male divine in every aspect of life. Female divine are to walk beside and not behind the male. The both female and male are difference in appearance that how the attraction for each other beginning. The outer appearance attracts male to female leading to companionship. The male looks to the females to ease the discomfort with compassion, understanding, stroking the bad feeling to make it better but the opinion of the female seem unimportant to male at the first sign of the situation. Yet the male has to make a step backward to say the female opinion is right. The male ego is a huge quest for the male to let down his guards. The female and male divine continues to live in harmony and depend on the different ideas and opinion that each possess and strive for completeness. When the male and female learns to share, communicate, listen, and willingness to share the solution of all concerns coming up with right decision as one. Female and male should not be in competition for seeing who the better person is. Throughout history the elements and function has not change for the female and male divine it just seem to adapt along with society principles of what society anticipate. Female and male divine has many elements and functions to help stay focus on the various barriers of life by adapting to society changing society. Finally, the male and the female divine share the same functions. They both are in authority to give orders, and many people look up to them both. They know life will bring different kinds for issues to endure, but they are willing to go throw and handle them with the proper approach. The male and the female divine are just alike concerning their children, and being there for their children. If mom is not available, the child will turn to their dad. The male and the female are valued. They are both beautiful people with values and power they both share. They give and take orders from each other, and other people. They both share a desire to love one another, and the male divine loves beautiful, smart women can stand on her on and fix life-changing problems. The woman wants the same values in a man. The elements and functions shared by the female and the male are on going from generations to generation.

Biography of Sobhuza II King of Swazi

Biography of Sobhuza II King of Swazi Sobhuza II was paramount Chief of the Swazi from 1921 and king of Swaziland from 1967 (until his death in 1982). His reign is the longest for any recorded modern African ruler (there are a couple of ancient Egyptians who, it is claimed, ruled for longer). During his period of rule, Sobhuza II saw Swaziland gain independence from Britain. Date of birth: 22 July 1899Date of death: 21 August 1982, Lobzilla Palace near Mbabane, Swaziland An Early LifeSobhuzas father, King Ngwane V died in February 1899, at the age of 23, during the yearly incwala (First Fruit) ceremony. Sobhuza, who was born later that year, was named as heir on 10 September 1899 under the regency of his grandmother, Labotsibeni Gwamile Mdluli. Sobhuzas grandmother had a new national school built in order that he obtain the best possible education. He finished school with two years at the Lovedale Institute in Cape Province, South Africa. In 1903 Swaziland became a British protectorate, and in 1906 administration was transferred to a British High Commissioner, who took responsibility for Basutoland, Bechuanaland and Swaziland. In 1907 the Partitions Proclamation ceded vast tracts of land to European settlers this was to prove a challenge for Sobhuzas reign. Paramount Chief of the SwaziSobhuza II was installed to the throne, as paramount chief of the Swazi (the British did not consider him a king at that time) on 22 December 1921. He immediately petitioned to have the Partitions Proclamation overturned. He traveled for this reason to London in 1922, but was unsuccessful in his attempt. It was not until the outbreak of World War II that he achieved a breakthrough obtaining a promise that Britain would buy back the land from settlers and restore it to the Swazi in exchange for Swazi support in the war. Towards the end of the war, Sobhuza II was declared the native authority within Swaziland, giving him an unprecedented level of power in a British colony. He was still under the aegis of the British High Commissioner though. After the war, a decision had to be made about the three High Commission Territories in southern Africa. Since the Union of South Africa, in 1910, there had been a plan to incorporate the three regions into the Union. But the SA government had become increasingly polarized and power was held by a minority white government. When the National Party took power in 1948, campaigning on an ideology of Apartheid, the British government realized that they could not hand over the High Commission territories to South Africa. The 1960s saw the beginnings of independence in Africa, and in Swaziland several new associations and parties formed, eager to have their say about the nations path to freedom from British rule. Two commissions were held in London with representatives of the European Advisory Council (EAC), a body which represented the rights of white settlers in Swaziland to the British High Commissioner, the Swazi National Council (SNC) which advised Sobhuza II on traditional tribal matters, the Swaziland Progressive Party (SPP) which represented the educated elite who felt alienated by traditional tribal rule, and the Ngwane National Liberatory Congress (NNLC) who wanted a democracy with a constitutional monarch. Constitutional MonarchIn 1964, feeling that he, and his extended, ruling Dlamini family, were not getting enough attention (they wanted to maintain their hold over traditional government in Swaziland after independence), Sobhuza II oversaw the creation of the royalist Imbokodvo National Movement (INM). The INM was successful in pre-independence elections, winning all 24 seats in the legislature (with the backing of the white settler United Swaziland Association). In 1967, in the final run up to independence, Sobhuza II was recognized by the British as a constitutional monarch. When independence was finally achieved on 6 September 1968, Sobhuza II was king and Prince Makhosini Dlamini was the countrys first Prime Minister. The transition to independence was smooth, with Sobhuza II announcing that since they were late coming to their sovereignty, they had the opportunity to observe the problems encountered elsewhere in Africa. From the beginning Sobhuza II meddled in the governance of the country, insisting oversight on all aspects of the legislature and judiciary. He promulgated government with a Swazi flavour, insisting that parliament was a consultative body of elders. It helped that his royalist party, the INM, controlled government. He was also slowly equipping a private army. Absolute MonarchIn April 1973 Sobhuza II abrogated the constitution and disbanded parliament, becoming an absolute monarch of the kingdom and ruling through a national council which he appointed. Democracy, he claimed, was un-Swazi. In 1977 Sobhuza II set up a traditional tribal advisory panel the Supreme Council of State, or Liqoqo. The Liqoqo was made up from members of the extended royal family, the Dlamini, who were previously members of the Swaziland National Council. He also set up a new tribal community system, the tiNkhulda, which provided elected representatives to a House of Assembly. Man of the PeopleThe Swazi people accepted Sobhuza II with great affection, he regularly appeared in traditional Swazi leopard-skin loincloth and feathers, oversaw traditional festivities and rituals, and practiced traditional medicine. Sobhuza II maintained a tight control on Swaziland politics by marrying into notable Swazi families. He was a strong proponent of polygamy. Records are unclear, but it is believed that he took more than 70 wives and had somewhere between 67 and 210 children. (It is estimated that at his death, Sobhuza II had around 1000 grandchildren). His own clan, the Dlamini, accounts for almost one quarter of the population of Swaziland. Throughout his reign he worked to reclaim lands granted to white settlers by his predecessors. This included an attempt in 1982 to claim the South African Bantustan of KaNgwane. (KaNgwane was the semi-independent homeland which had been created in 1981 for the Swazi population living in South Africa.) KaNgwane would have given Swaziland its own, much needed, access to the sea. International RelationsSobhuza II maintained good relations with his neighbors, especially Mozambique, through which it was able to access the sea and trade routes. But it was a careful balancing act with Marxist Mozambique on one side and Apartheid South Africa on the other. It was revealed after his death that Sobhuza II had signed secret security agreements with the Apartheid government in South Africa, giving them the opportunity to pursue the ANC camped in Swaziland. Under Sobhuza IIs leadership, Swaziland developed its natural resources, creating the largest man-made commercial forest in Africa, and expanding iron and asbestos mining to become a leading exporter in the 70s. Death of a KingPrior to his death, Sobhuza II appointed Prince Sozisa Dlamini to act as chief advisor to the regent, the Queen Mother Dzeliwe Shongwe. The regent wasa to act on behalf of the 14 year old heir, Prince Makhosetive. After Sobhuza IIs death on 21 August 1982, a power struggle erupted between Dzeliwe Shongwe and Sozisa Dlamini. Dzeliwe was ousted from the position, and after acting as regent for a month and a half, Sozisa appointed Prince Makhosetives mother, Queen Ntombi Thwala to be the new regent. Prince Makhosetive was crowned king, as Mswati III, on 25 April 1986.

Free Essays on Hemophilia

Hemophilia is the oldest known hereditary bleeding disorder. There are two types of hemophilia, A and B (Christmas Disease). Low levels or complete absence of a blood protein essential for clotting causes both. Patients with hemophilia A lack the blood clotting protein, factor VIII, and those with hemophilia B lack factor IX. There are about 20,000 hemophilia patients in the United States. Each year, about 400 babies are born with this disorder. Approximately 85% have hemophilia A and the remainder has hemophilia B. The severity of hemophilia is related to the amount of the clotting factor in the blood. About 70% of hemophilia patients have less than one percent of the normal amount and, thus, have severe hemophilia. A small increase in the blood level of the clotting factor, up to five percent of normal, results in mild hemophilia with rare bleeding except after injuries or surgery. Enormous strides made in assuring the safety of the blood supply and in the genetic aspects of hemophilia research allow us now to focus on issues, which will improve the quality of life of the hemophilia patient and, ultimately, develop a cure. The most important challenges facing the hemophilia patient, health care provider, and research community today are safety of products used for treatment, management of the disease including inhibitor formation, irreversible joint damage, and life-threatening hemorrhage, and progress toward a cure. Safety of Products Used for Treatment In the past 10 to 15 years, advances in screening of blood donors, laboratory testing of donated blood, and techniques to inactivate viruses in blood and blood products have remarkably increased the safety of blood products used to treat hemophilia. Although treatment-related infection with the AIDS virus or most of the hepatitis viruses is a thing of the past, these measures do not completely avoid viruses such as hepatitis A and parvo virus. These infections are rare; nevert... Free Essays on Hemophilia Free Essays on Hemophilia Hemophilia is the oldest known hereditary bleeding disorder. There are two types of hemophilia, A and B (Christmas Disease). Low levels or complete absence of a blood protein essential for clotting causes both. Patients with hemophilia A lack the blood clotting protein, factor VIII, and those with hemophilia B lack factor IX. There are about 20,000 hemophilia patients in the United States. Each year, about 400 babies are born with this disorder. Approximately 85% have hemophilia A and the remainder has hemophilia B. The severity of hemophilia is related to the amount of the clotting factor in the blood. About 70% of hemophilia patients have less than one percent of the normal amount and, thus, have severe hemophilia. A small increase in the blood level of the clotting factor, up to five percent of normal, results in mild hemophilia with rare bleeding except after injuries or surgery. Enormous strides made in assuring the safety of the blood supply and in the genetic aspects of hemophilia research allow us now to focus on issues, which will improve the quality of life of the hemophilia patient and, ultimately, develop a cure. The most important challenges facing the hemophilia patient, health care provider, and research community today are safety of products used for treatment, management of the disease including inhibitor formation, irreversible joint damage, and life-threatening hemorrhage, and progress toward a cure. Safety of Products Used for Treatment In the past 10 to 15 years, advances in screening of blood donors, laboratory testing of donated blood, and techniques to inactivate viruses in blood and blood products have remarkably increased the safety of blood products used to treat hemophilia. Although treatment-related infection with the AIDS virus or most of the hepatitis viruses is a thing of the past, these measures do not completely avoid viruses such as hepatitis A and parvo virus. These infections are rare; nevert...

Black History Month Creation and Overview

Black History Month Creation and Overview Black History Month is a month set aside to learn, honor, and celebrate the achievements of black men and women throughout history. Since its inception, Black History Month has always been celebrated in February. Find out how Black History Month originated, why February was chosen, and what the annual theme for Black History Month is for this year. Origins of Black History Month The origins of Black History Month can be traced back to a man named Carter G. Woodson (1875–1950). Woodson, the son of former slaves, was an amazing man in his own right. Since his family was too poor to send him to school as a child, he taught himself the basics of a school education. At age 20, Woodson was finally able to attend high school, which he completed in just two years. Woodson then went on to earn a bachelors and masters degree from the University of Chicago. In 1912, Woodson became only the second African American to earn a doctorate from Harvard University (W.E.B. Du Bois was the first). Woodson used his hard-earned education to teach. He taught both in public schools and at Howard University. Three years after earning his doctorate, Woodson made a trip that had a great impact on him. In 1915, he traveled to Chicago to participate in a three-week celebration of the 50th anniversary of the end of slavery. The excitement and enthusiasm generated by the events inspired Woodson to continue the study of black history year-round. Before leaving Chicago, Woodson and four others created the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History (ASNLH) on September 9, 1915. The following year, the ASNLH began publication of the Journal of Negro History. Woodson realized that most textbooks at the time ignored the history and achievements of blacks. Thus, in addition to the journal, he wanted to find a way to encourage interest and study of black history. In 1926, Woodson promoted the idea of a Negro History Week, which was to be held during the second week of February. The idea caught on quickly and Negro History Week was soon celebrated around the United States. With a high demand for study materials, the ASNLH began to produce pictures, posters, and lesson plans to help teachers bring Negro History Week into schools. In 1937, the ASNLH also began producing the Negro History Bulletin, which focused on an annual theme for Negro History Week. In 1976, the 50th anniversary of the beginning of Negro History Week and the bicentennial of the United States independence, Black History Week was expanded to Black History Month. Ever since then, Black History Month has been celebrated in February around the country. When Is Black History Month? Woodson chose the second week of February to celebrate Negro History Week because that week included the birthdays of two important men: President Abraham Lincoln (February 12) and Frederick Douglass (February 14). When Negro History Week turned into Black History Month in 1976, the celebrations during the second week of February expanded to the entire month of February. What Is the Theme for This Years Black History Month? Since its inception in 1926, Negro History Week and Black History Month have been given annual themes. The first annual theme was simply, The Negro in History, but since then the themes have grown more specific. Here is a list of the most current and future themes for Black History Month. 2014 - Civil Rights in America2015 - A Century of Black Life, History, and Culture2016 - Hallowed Grounds: Sites of African American Memory2017 - The Crisis in Black Education2018 - African Americans in Times of War2019 - Black Migrations

Finish the following question Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Finish the following question - Assignment Example It, therefore, advocates for abortion, abstinence and celibacy. In addition, it advocates for the legalization of the use of contraceptives. The intention of the pro-choice movement is to ensure that all â€Å"rights† are legal (Johnson & Lambert, 2010). 2. Marxist Approach to Sexuality: Marxist disregards the importance of heterosexuality to capitalism. In this sense, he alleviates the oppression of women by using capitalism system and private property. According to Marxist feminists, the liberation of women could be achieved through the reconstruction of the capitalist system of economy. The reason for this is that in this system, there is no compensation for women labor (Ferguson, 2013). However, diverse opinions exist regarding the level to which the constructs of the theory advocate for women’s economic rights. 3. Feminist Politics of Location: The debate is meant to campaign against the oppression of female body in terms of cultural and national boundaries. The women movements fight against the restriction of the freedom of women. This is done in terms of sexuality, politics and certain geographical and cultural locations. It campaigns therefore that women’s rights and powers should extend globally. Additionally, it should extend across all cultural aspects. 4. Feminist Body Politics: The term refers to debates that address the misrepresentation and abuse of the female gender. It involves the fight against the perception of the human body as an object. It also advocates against violence to women as well as their reproductive rights. This kind of politics emphasized on the woman’s power over her body. The term was most famous in 1970s in the United States during the â€Å"second wave† of the feminist movement (Ferguson, 2013). 5. Riot Grrrl: It is a hardcore punk movement started in Washington DC and a bigger part of northwest Pacific. It began in the early 1990s. It is an underground

Labor's New Internationalism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Labor's New Internationalism - Essay Example They were subjected to increased pressure to deregulate and open their economies. Eventually, this resulted in the deregulation of their financial systems, and they became the key victims of today's global economic disaster. The consequent financial instability has resulted in slow economic growth. This further translates into increased unemployment rates, lower wages and greater overall insecurity of the nation. The correlated, general upward price movement of goods and services in the economy has made it difficult for consumers to even buy the products that they produce. The WTO has not been held accountable for the disruptive rules and regulations that they imposed and it has also avoided responsibility for the negative impact it has had on the workers and environment. The system has destabilized the national and local efforts to legislate and normalize the conditions. They WTO have exploited the deeply rooted social values that they live by. During the cold war, labor unions played a mainly geopolitical role defined by anticommunism. Strong Unions were essential tools for the development of democracy. By the end of the cold war, all labor unions lost that international political significance and were now considered to be an obstacle to business interests.

International business context Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

International business context - Essay Example Most significantly is the fact that mergers have resultant benefits and accrued demerits. As a result, there have been diverse arguments for and against the policy of mergers in the international business. Over the years, the growth of mergers continues to fall. In fact, in 2011 and 2012, there were few mergers, with only four deals hitting the $20 billion mark in 2012. The pro-mergers argue that those global level mega-mergers are inevitable as part of the cycle of consolidation and concentration in globalizing industries where firms seek to gain advantage and accelerate their presence (Deans, Kroeger, & Zeisel 2002, p.1-3). On the other hand, the anti-mergers argue that business leaders should embrace innovativeness and desist from mergers in approaching international business Ghemawat & Ghadar (2000). Indeed, according to AT Kearney, in a span of 25 years, all industries in the globe will consolidate in four stages that include the opening phase, the accumulation, focus, and allia nce stage (Deans, Kroeger, & Zeisel 2002, p.1-2). He notes that the four stages are distinct and derive unique results. He argues that industries follow a similar consolidation pattern although some industries may spend more time in certain stages than others may. Moreover, he states that all industries encounter similar challenges at respective stages. Additionally he argues that the size, location, and type of business does not matter in consolidation but endgames stage matters. An industry starts at a low level of concentration and increases its merger and acquisition activity until it reaches saturation. At this point, alliances form. From the article, we can derive that companies follow a uniform consolidation pattern and consolidation allows companies to get bigger (Deans, Kroeger, & Zeisel 2002, p.1-3). More so, merger decline upon reaching concentration and result to alliances. As such, when companies understand the patterns that mergers follow, and appreciate that their com panies stand on the consolidation curve, then they can initiate successful mergers. Actually, A.T. Kearney’s theory predicts that then dominant players in the industry will gain 60-70% of global market revenues in a merger endgame. This demonstrates the escalating free movement of resources, people, and information over the few years (Deans, Kroeger, & Zeisel 2002, p.1-3). Most importantly, it is worth noting that mergers bear significant benefits to international business despite the process having reasonable risks. As such, the benefits of any merger rely heavily on the marketing strategy in application and therefore not all mergers are successful. Notably, a successful merger that combines two or more companies’ leads to expansion of services and products offered as well as customer base and market shares. Ideally, when companies combine in a buyout strategy, they relevantly share resources and expand their market presence locally and internationally. More so, the m arket expansion and consolidation of resources cuts down operation and business costs (Periasamy 2009, p.11). For example, when a local company mergers with an international company the local company gains international market presence through the networks established by its partner. Indeed, most companies lack international networks and thus to gain international market presence a merger is relevant. More so, the establishment of a merger enables a

PESTEL REPORT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

PESTEL REPORT - Essay Example Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environment and Legal issues greatly differ in respect to domestic as well as the global structure. PESTEL analysis provides an overview towards the different external factors that the business or organization has to take into consideration. The Political environment of the country highly contributes to the stability of the nation which is as vital aspect to consider regarding the business development. Political factors include intervention of government policies, labor laws, trade restrictions and tax policies. The Economic influences of a nation or the global environment provide a great impact on the business operation and decision making. These factors include the growth of the economy, inflation rate, exchange-rate, globalization, GDP and GNP growth. The Social and cultural aspects of a region contribute considerably to the products demand and business market. The social factors include population growth rate, career attitudes, age dist ribution safety measures, educational infrastructure and cultural taboos. Technological aspect of the business determines the production level and affects the cost and quality of the products. Technological factors include R&D activity, automation, rate of technological change, emergence of new technologies and impact of communication. Environmental issues directly or indirectly affect the business well-being in regard to its kind. Environmental factors include ecological and environmental aspects such as climatic change, weather. Also environmental awareness creates an impact towards the production of products either positively or negatively. Legal issues are widely taken into consideration when establishing a business in a particular region. Legal factors include consumer law, discrimination law, employment law, and health and safety law. Depending on these factors, a PESTEL analysis should provide a context for the business in relation to its external environment. After having a brief introduction about all these factors, let us take a deeper discussion on the effect and influence of economic factors in business growth and development. Influence of Economic factors on business: The economic environment of a country greatly influences the businesses and their market. Though economic factors are out of control for business, it shows a profound effect on the performance and marketing of the business products. It contributes to the product demand, cost structure, pricing strategies, profitability and various other issues within the concern. In addition, it provides a direct impact on the behavior of the consumer in buying the business products. In case of international business, it is a vital one to consider the economic environment of the region or country as it provides a prominent influence over the business growth and its products market. On the whole, â€Å"the strengthening of an economy will generally benefit industries, but the extent of its effect wil l vary according to which economic factors are most affected.† (Henry 2008). One of the major aspects that impact business and economy is the Gross Domestic Product rate (GDP). A constant and positive level GDP is essential to sustain a good business economy. A business GDP has to be on a constant check and appropriate measures have to be taken to maintain the same. Appropriate changes to the policies will

Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 15

Case Study Example In order to attain the objectives of the study, the presentation has been divided into two major parts. The first part is the identification of the triggering effect of the current supply chain management scheme and the consequences faced by this structured platform. The second part is a number of recommendations that should be done to attain the goals set by the board of directors. From the study done on the current ORUN managing supply chain scheme, observations show that there are several identifiable operational and management problems and most of them are triggered by a wide communications gap between the headquarters and the subsidiary plants of the firm. ORUN Company, just as a number of manufacturing enterprises, is structured to be among networks of manufacturing and distribution sites that acquire raw materials and transform them into similar finished goods as well as distribute them to customers. However, despite the process seeming simple, it is evident that the fact that the rates at which ORUN’s subsidiary plants have become so self-regulating from the headquarters in conducting their operations, the company ceases to support its initial ideology of a structured value added supply chain. Evidentially, ORUN supply chain management faces numerous consequences because of the lack of a redesigned supply chain scheme that integrates the independence of the subsidiary plants to their headquarter operations. It has continuously been supposed that the supply chain general performance depends on the different sites combined performance though, typically, each site is managed by autonomous management conditions. This has been the case at ORUN since it is well documented that, the company’s remote operations have become very independent in their local procedures. However, these self-made objectives may have very influence to do with the supply

Stressors and Stress Management Mechanism Among First Year Principals Essay

Stressors and Stress Management Mechanism Among First Year Principals - Essay Example Therefore, they need to be adequately prepared intellectually, physically, and psychologically for these tasks. When principals are mandated to run a new school, these challenges are exemplified by the fact that they are still new to the work environment. Meeting all the above obligation in a new school is indeed challenging particularly in the first year when they have not adapted to the new work environment. Assisting them adapt swiftly and smoothly into the new school environment will greatly reduce the stress levels and therefore enable them expedite their duties as principals in an efficient and effective way. Once they have a good start, then it becomes possible to run the institutions effectively and efficiently thereby meeting the rising demands of higher academic standards. This research will therefore investigate the following: First year principals face many challenges due to the demands of a new institutional environment. The transition period to the new work environment predisposes the principals to new and unique set of stressors such as high levels of expectation on performance, new set of institutional values and traditions, uncooperative teachers, dealing with failed school performance especially when transfer was made to resuscitate the school, among others. Lack of adequate preparedness, support and empowerment causes stress and in extreme cases, burnout. No matter the cause of transition from one school to another, challenges are always present. This calls for an investigation into the problem of transition of principal ship with the aim of coming up with a new set of more efficient coping mechanisms. Being new in a school set up presents a set of stressors that are otherwise not present when the principals have worked on the school for quite some time. The new work environment has different cultural, economic, social, and

Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 15

Case Study Example In order to attain the objectives of the study, the presentation has been divided into two major parts. The first part is the identification of the triggering effect of the current supply chain management scheme and the consequences faced by this structured platform. The second part is a number of recommendations that should be done to attain the goals set by the board of directors. From the study done on the current ORUN managing supply chain scheme, observations show that there are several identifiable operational and management problems and most of them are triggered by a wide communications gap between the headquarters and the subsidiary plants of the firm. ORUN Company, just as a number of manufacturing enterprises, is structured to be among networks of manufacturing and distribution sites that acquire raw materials and transform them into similar finished goods as well as distribute them to customers. However, despite the process seeming simple, it is evident that the fact that the rates at which ORUN’s subsidiary plants have become so self-regulating from the headquarters in conducting their operations, the company ceases to support its initial ideology of a structured value added supply chain. Evidentially, ORUN supply chain management faces numerous consequences because of the lack of a redesigned supply chain scheme that integrates the independence of the subsidiary plants to their headquarter operations. It has continuously been supposed that the supply chain general performance depends on the different sites combined performance though, typically, each site is managed by autonomous management conditions. This has been the case at ORUN since it is well documented that, the company’s remote operations have become very independent in their local procedures. However, these self-made objectives may have very influence to do with the supply

A Gridlock that Costs the Nations Progress Essay

A Gridlock that Costs the Nations Progress - Essay Example Tom Udall of New Mexico in terms of the gridlock in the US Senate. It exposes how things do not get done because of each party’s blocking the other from getting their points across and delaying decisions altogether. The congress has become so impersonal due to conflicts between the Democrats and the Republicans, to let it affect their efficiency in deliberating over the necessary legislations. It was a revelation to George Packer to see an empty chamber while a senator delivers a speech in congress with only the presiding officer present, and probably the next senator scheduled to give a speech, and cameras all around to capture the speech. Packer expected a chamber-full of senators and congressmen as he imagined it while watching speeches on C-span, but he was disappointed to know that in reality, it was only for the sake of the cameras. Packer remembered how the congress was in its so-called â€Å"golden age† from the 1950’s to the 1970’s. He idolized Eu gene McCarthy and how charismatic he was in his talks in front of the people in various locations. As a young boy, he already observed how politicians worked together. Men like Humphrey, Baker, Church, Javitz and McGovern were perceived to be serious thinkers, fully dedicated to serve the country with their positions in Congress. Aside from regularly huddling together to discuss solutions to the country’s problems, they collaborated on doing real action instead of ruling from their â€Å"ivory towers†.

Why Do We Need Criminal Law?

Why Do We Need Criminal Law? Why we need Criminal Law. Even though some believe that laws sometimes oppress the people, a society with laws would not be a society but more like a jungle because laws serve to regulate human interaction and laws enforce moral belief. The purposes of criminal law in its simplest form are to protect and serve society. Criminal law has basic functions that help protect society. Criminal law purpose in society function is to protect the basic moral of the people. In the early days in America, history during the so-called Wild West morality was a low point. Criminal without a regard for the law dominated the social norm during the cowboy era. Many townships did not have law enforcement and thus lawlessness had no buffer for crime. If control had not been restored the country in all probability would not exist today. The laws exist to create a line that must not be cross or else one will suffer the consequence of violating the law. According to Frank Schmalleger, the author of Criminal justice today, the fundamental to the concept of criminal law is the assumption that criminal act injure not just individuals, but society as a whole. (Schmalleger, 2011, p.117) Gleaning from his statement it is clear that when a crime is committed it does not only affect the victim but the community. When saying community this is to include family, friends, and possibly neighbors. Therefore, any time a law is broken it can affect many people. Moreover as a society, we need to have buffers to keep order or else disastrous society would be the norm. Since the law act as a buffer for lawlessness it is fair to say that it also set boundaries for law-abiding citizens. In order for criminal law to work these boundaries has to often deterrence. Deterrence is a goal of criminal sentencing that seeks to inhibit criminal behavior through the fear of punishment. (Schmalleger, 2011, p. 374) In order to persuade people violating the law, they need to know that there will be consequences for their actions. The purpose of deterrence is not merely to punish one for a crime it also exist t to persuade other from committing the same crime. Often time when one is drive on the interstate or freeways one will see law enforcement sitting on the side of the road. The present of the officer is a simply deterrence to driver speeding. General deterrence main goal is to reduce the probability of one committing a crime. (Schmalleger, 2011, p.374) When looking at general deterrence, it goal is stop deviance in the general population. Criminal law tries to use general deterrence that will stop future occurrence. When one in a store to shoplift they might see, a sign that state camera are monitoring the store. Furthermore, a store might have a security guard present to deter one stealing. The police might patrol an area near clubs where fight often occurs. However, there is specific deterrence that seeks to avoid repeat offenses. (Schmalleger, 2011, p.374) In specific deterrence, the goal is to prevent recidivism by convicted offenders. In this theory, it attempts to eliminate the offender repeat the crime by corporal punishment, three strike rule, and shock sentencing. When deterrence does not work the justice system only alternative is punishment. Punishment is much like deterrence in that it is seen as a crime preventive measure. Some see punishment as a nature and deserved consequence of criminal activity. (Schmalleger, 2011, p.374) If criminal law is to function correctly criminal have to know that if they commit a crime, especially after the system has place deterrence as a buffer to prevent one form committing a crime they will be punished. Punishment for offense such as child molestation is one of the toughest punishments for offenders. Next to the death penalty child molester are given the strict punishment. The offender are often limited to where they can live, seek employment and whom they can interact with in society. One might say that the punishment they receive is just but this punishment often led to recidivism. Therefore, the strictness of this punishment tends to defend the purpose. Society will say that the punishment is a success however, it is not rehabilitating. Punishment does have it place in society and does work but one must ask is punishment just or is just retribution with makeup. Retribution is seen as the act of taking revenge on criminal perpetrator. (Schmalleger, 2011, p.373) Retribution seems like the punishment that child molesters receive. The just deserts model is seen as the criminal getting what they deserve. (Schmalleger, 2011, p.374) However, this does not solve the problem it perpetual the problem in criminal law. The Court claims to justify the death penalty in retributive terms in part because execution vindicates the communitys interest in denouncing the conduct of the offender with the ultimate penalty. Nevertheless, the Courts analysis is problematic. First, if satisfying the communitys desire for punishment counts as a retributive goal, the Court uncritically understands the death penalty as the ultimate penalty. (Markel, 2009) In conclusion, society knows the purposes of criminal law in its simplest form are to protect and serve society. Criminal law can perform it basic functions, which is to help protect society. However, criminal law will never achieve it s objective if the criminal is not rehabilitated. Rehabilitation should be a main objective next protecting and serving. If society did not have criminal law, the society would not be to survive.

A Look Into False Memory Syndrome :: Memory Psychology Disorders Medical Essays

Memory is the mental faculty of retaining and recalling past experiences. A repressed memory is one that is retained in the subconscious mind, where one is not aware of it but where it can still affect both conscious thoughts and behavior. When memory is distorted or confabulated, the result can be what has been called the False Memory Syndrome: a condition in which a person's identity and interpersonal relationships are entered around a memory of traumatic experience which is objectively false but in which the person strongly believes (note that the syndrome is not characterized by false memories as such). We all have memories that are inaccurate. Rather, the syndrome may be diagnosed when the memory is so deeply ingrained that it orients the individual's entire personality and lifestyle, in turn disrupting all sorts of other adaptive behaviors. The analogy to personality disorder is intentional. False memory syndrome is especially destructive because the person assiduously avoids c onfrontation with any evidence that might challenge the memory. Thus it takes on a life of its own, encapsulated and resistant to correction. The person may become so focused on the memory that he or she may be effectively distracted from coping with real problems in his or her life (Loftus 1980, 1997). There are many models which try to explain how memory works. Nevertheless, we do not know exactly how memory works. One of the most questionable models of memory is the one which assumes that every experience a person has had is 'recorded' in memory and that some of these memories are of traumatic events too terrible to want to remember. These terrible memories are locked away in the subconscious mind, i.e. repressed, only to be remembered in adulthood when some triggering event opens the door to the unconscious. Both before and after the repressed memory is remembered, it causes physical and mental disorders in a person. Some people have made an effort to explain their pain, even cancer, as coming from repressed memories of incest in the body. Scientists have studied related phenomenon such as people whose hands bleed in certain religious settings. Presumably such people, called stigmatics, "are not revealing unconscious memories of being crucified as young children, but rather are demonstrating a fascinating psychogenic anomaly that springs from their conscious fixation on the suffering of Christ. Similarly, it is possible that conscious fixation on the idea that one was sexually abused might increase the frequency of some physical symptoms, regardless of whether or not the abuse really occurred.

Victor Frankenstein is the Monster in Mary Shelleys Frankenstein Essay

Victor Frankenstein is the Monster in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Through out the novel we are under the assumption that the demon in the novel is the man who is disfigured and hideous on the outside. While we view Victor Frankenstein as the handsome and caring victim, even though sometimes a monster cannot be seen but heard. Looks can be deceiving but actions are always true.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  We first view Frankenstein’s ignorance while he is busy in his work. He had not visited his family for two straight years. These are the people that love and care about him, yet he does not go home. Not even to visit his own father, the man who pays for his schooling and necessities.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  We again view his ignorance and irresponsibility when after spending two years of work on his creature he disowns and abandons the creature. He runs out of the room after seeing the creature come to life. He fled the room because he thought the creature was so hideous, even though he had chosen all the best body parts for its creation. When Frankenstein returns to the house when he â€Å"became assured that my enemy had indeed fled, I clapped my hands for joy†(55). Even after all his work he is ecstatic that this horrible beast has left him.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Victors’ ignorance is viewed again when he does not tell anyone that he has created this monster, and that he is the murderer of William. He does not tell of this creature until his own welfare is on the line. He could have stopped these evil deeds the mons...

Democratic Origins and Revolutionary Writers, 1776-1820 Essay

James Fenimore Cooper (Photo courtesy Library of Congress) The hard-fought American Revolution against Britain (1775-1783) was the first modern war of liberation against a colonial power. The triumph of American independence seemed to many at the time a divine sign that America and her people were destined for greatness. Military victory fanned nationalistic hopes for a great new literature. Yet with the exception of outstanding political writing, few works of note appeared during or soon after the Revolution. American books were harshly reviewed in England. Americans were painfully aware of their excessive dependence on English literary models. The search for a native literature became a national obsession. As one American magazine editor wrote, around 1816, â€Å"Dependence is a state of degradation fraught with disgrace, and to be dependent on a foreign mind for what we can ourselves produce is to add to the crime of indolence the weakness of stupidity. † Cultural revolutions, unlike military revolutions, cannot be successfully imposed but must grow from the soil of shared experience. Revolutions are expressions of the heart of the people; they grow gradually out of new sensibilities and wealth of experience. It would take 50 years of accumulated history for America to earn its cultural independence and to produce the first great generation of American writers: Washington Irving, James Fenimore Cooper, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Herman Melville, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allan Poe, Walt Whitman, and Emily Dickinson. America’s literary independence was slowed by a lingering identification with England, an excessive imitation of English or classical literary models, and difficult economic and political conditions that hampered publishing. Revolutionary writers, despite their genuine patriotism, were of necessity self-conscious, and they could never find roots in their American sensibilities. Colonial writers of the revolutionary generation had been born English, had grown to maturity as English citizens, and had cultivated English modes of thought and English fashions in dress and behavior. Their parents and grandparents were English (or European), as were all their friends. Added to this, American awareness of literary fashion still lagged behind the English, and this time lag intensified American imitation. Fifty years after their fame in England, English neoclassic writers such as Joseph Addison, Richard Steele, Jonathan Swift, Alexander Pope, Oliver Goldsmith, and Samuel Johnson were still eagerly imitated in America. Moreover, the heady challenges of building a new nation attracted talented and educated people to politics, law, and diplomacy. These pursuits brought honor, glory, and financial security. Writing, on the other hand, did not pay. Early American writers, now separated from England, effectively had no modern publishers, no audience, and no adequate legal protection. Editorial assistance, distribution, and publicity were rudimentary. Until 1825, most American authors paid printers to publish their work. Obviously only the leisured and independently wealthy, like Washington Irving and the New York Knickerbocker group, or the group of Connecticut poets known as the Hartford Wits, could afford to indulge their interest in writing. The exception, Benjamin Franklin, though from a poor family, was a printer by trade and could publish his own work. Charles Brockden Brown was more typical. The author of several interesting Gothic romances, Brown was the first American author to attempt to live from his writing. But his short life ended in poverty. The lack of an audience was another problem. The small cultivated audience in America wanted well-known European authors, partly out of the exaggerated respect with which former colonies regarded their previous rulers. This preference for English works was not entirely unreasonable, considering the inferiority of American output, but it worsened the situation by depriving American authors of an audience. Only journalism offered financial remuneration, but the mass audience wanted light, undemanding verse and short topical essays — not long or experimental work. The absence of adequate copyright laws was perhaps the clearest cause of literary stagnation. American printers pirating English best-sellers understandably were unwilling to pay an American author for unknown material. The unauthorized reprinting of foreign books was originally seen as a service to the colonies as well as a source of profit for printers like Franklin, who reprinted works of the classics and great European books to educate the American public. Printers everywhere in America followed his lead. There are notorious examples of pirating. Matthew Carey, an important American publisher, paid a London agent — a sort of literary spy — to send copies of unbound pages, or even proofs, to him in fast ships that could sail to America in a month. Carey’s men would sail out to meet the incoming ships in the harbor and speed the pirated books  into print using typesetters who divided the book into sections and worked in shifts around the clock. Such a pirated English book could be reprinted in a day and placed on the shelves for sale in American bookstores almost as fast as in England. Because imported authorized editions were more expensive and could not compete with pirated ones, the copyright situation damaged foreign authors such as Sir Walter Scott and Charles Dickens, along with American authors. But at least the foreign authors had already been paid by their original publishers and were already well known. Americans such as James Fenimore Cooper not only failed to receive adequate payment, but they had to suffer seeing their works pirated under their noses. Cooper’s first successful book, The Spy (1821), was pirated by four different printers within a month of its appearance. Ironically, the copyright law of 1790, which allowed pirating, was nationalistic in intent. Drafted by Noah Webster, the great lexicographer who later compiled an American dictionary, the law protected only the work of American authors; it was felt that English writers should look out for themselves. Bad as the law was, none of the early publishers were willing to have it changed because it proved profitable for them. Piracy starved the first generation of revolutionary American writers; not surprisingly, the generation after them produced even less work of merit. The high point of piracy, in 1815, corresponds with the low point of American writing. Nevertheless, the cheap and plentiful supply of pirated foreign books and classics in the first 50 years of the new country did educate Americans, including the first great writers, who began to make their appearance around 1825. THE AMERICAN ENLIGHTENMENT The 18th-century American Enlightenment was a movement marked by an emphasis on rationality rather than tradition, scientific inquiry instead of unquestioning religious dogma, and representative government in place of monarchy. Enlightenment thinkers and writers were devoted to the ideals of justice, liberty, and equality as the natural rights of man. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) Benjamin Franklin, whom the Scottish philosopher David Hume called America’s â€Å"first great man of letters,† embodied the Enlightenment ideal of humane rationality. Practical yet idealistic, hard-working and enormously successful, Franklin recorded his early life in his famous Autobiography. Writer, printer, publisher, scientist, philanthropist, and diplomat, he was the most famous and respected private figure of his time. He was the first great self-made man in America, a poor democrat born in an aristocratic age that his fine example helped to liberalize. Franklin was a second-generation immigrant. His Puritan father, a chandler (candle-maker), came to Boston, Massachusetts, from England in 1683. In many ways Franklin’s life illustrates the impact of the Enlightenment on a gifted individual. Self-educated but well-read in John Locke, Lord Shaftesbury, Joseph Addison, and other Enlightenment writers, Franklin learned from them to apply reason to his own life and to break with tradition — in particular the old-fashioned Puritan tradition — when it threatened to smother his ideals. While a youth, Franklin taught himself languages, read widely, and practiced writing for the public. When he moved from Boston to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Franklin already had the kind of education associated with the upper classes. He also had the Puritan capacity for hard, careful work, constant self-scrutiny, and the desire to better himself. These qualities steadily propelled him to wealth, respectability, and honor. Never selfish, Franklin tried to help other ordinary people become successful by sharing his insights and initiating a characteristically American genre — the self-help book. Franklin’s Poor Richard’s Almanack, begun in 1732 and published for many years, made Franklin prosperous and well-known throughout the colonies. In this annual book of useful encouragement, advice, and factual information, amusing characters such as old Father Abraham and Poor Richard exhort the reader in pithy, memorable sayings. In â€Å"The Way to Wealth,† which originally appeared in the Almanack, Father Abraham, â€Å"a plain clean old Man, with white Locks,† quotes Poor Richard at length. â€Å"A Word to the Wise is enough,† he says. â€Å"God helps them that help themselves. † â€Å"Early to Bed, and early to rise, makes a Man healthy, wealthy, and wise. † Poor Richard is a psychologist (â€Å"Industry pays Debts, while Despair encreaseth them†), and he always counsels hard work (â€Å"Diligence is the Mother of Good Luck†). Do not be lazy, he advises, for â€Å"One To-day is worth two tomorrow. â€Å"Sometimes he creates anecdotes to illustrate his points: â€Å"A little Neglect may breed great Mischief†¦. For want of a Nail the Shoe was lost; for want of a Shoe the Horse was lost; and for want of a Horse the Rider was lost, being overtaken and slain by the Enemy, all for want of Care about a Horse-shoe Nail. † Franklin was a genius at compressing a moral point: â€Å"What maintains one Vice, would bring up two Children. † â€Å"A small leak will sink a great Ship. † â€Å"Fools make Feasts, and wise Men eat them. † Franklin’s Autobiography is, in part, another self-help book. Written to advise his son, it covers only the early years. The most famous section describes his scientific scheme of self- improvement. Franklin lists 13 virtues: temperance, silence, order, resolution, frugality, industry, sincerity, justice, moderation, cleanliness, tranquility, chastity, and humility. He elaborates on each with a maxim; for example, the temperance maxim is â€Å"Eat not to Dullness. Drink not to Elevation. † A pragmatic scientist, Franklin put the idea of perfectibility to the test, using himself as the experimental subject. To establish good habits, Franklin invented a reusable calendrical record book in which he worked on one virtue each week, recording each lapse with a black spot. His theory prefigures psychological behaviorism, while his systematic method of notation anticipates modern behavior modification. The project of self-improvement blends the Enlightenment belief in perfectibility with the Puritan habit of moral self-scrutiny. Franklin saw early that writing could best advance his ideas, and he therefore deliberately perfected his supple prose style, not as an end in itself but as a tool. â€Å"Write with the learned. Pronounce with the vulgar,† he advised. A scientist, he followed the Royal (scientific) Society’s 1667 advice to use â€Å"a close, naked, natural way of speaking; positive expressions, clear senses, a native easiness, bringing all things as near the mathematical plainness as they can. † Despite his prosperity and fame, Franklin never lost his democratic sensibility, and he was an important figure at the 1787 convention at which the U. S. Constitution was drafted. In his later years, he was president of an antislavery association. One of his last efforts was to promote universal public education. Hector St. John de Crevecoeur (1735-1813) Another Enlightenment figure is Hector St. John de Crevecoeur, whose Letters from an American Farmer (1782) gave Europeans a glowing idea of opportunities for peace, wealth, and pride in America. Neither an American nor a farmer, but a French aristocrat who owned a plantation outside New York City before the Revolution, Crevecoeur enthusiastically praised the colonies for their industry, tolerance, and growing prosperity in 12 letters that depict America as an agrarian paradise — a vision that would inspire Thomas Jefferson, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and many other writers up to the present. Crevecoeur was the earliest European to develop a considered view of America and the new American character. The first to exploit the â€Å"melting pot† image of America, in a famous passage he asks: What then is the American, this new man? He is either a European, or the descendant of a European, hence that strange mixture of blood, which you will find in no other country. I could point out to you a family whose grandfather was an Englishman, whose wife was Dutch, whose son married a French woman, and whose present four sons have now four wives of different nations†¦. Here individuals of all nations are melted into a new race of men, whose labors and posterity will one day cause changes in the world. THE POLITICAL PAMPHLET: Thomas Paine (1737-1809) The passion of Revolutionary literature is found in pamphlets, the most popular form of political literature of the day. Over 2,000 pamphlets were published during the Revolution. The pamphlets thrilled patriots and threatened loyalists; they filled the role of drama, as they were often read aloud in public to excite audiences. American soldiers read them aloud in their camps; British Loyalists threw them into public bonfires. Thomas Paine’s pamphlet Common Sense sold over 100,000 copies in the first three months of its publication. It is still rousing today. â€Å"The cause of America is in a great measure the cause of all mankind,† Paine wrote, voicing the idea of American exceptionalism still strong in the United States — that in some fundamental sense, since America is a democratic experiment and a country theoretically open to all immigrants, the fate of America foreshadows the fate of humanity at large. Political writings in a democracy had to be clear to appeal to the voters. And to have informed voters, universal education was promoted by many of the founding fathers. One indication of the vigorous, if simple, literary life was the proliferation of newspapers. More newspapers were read in America during the Revolution than anywhere else in the world. Immigration also mandated a simple style. Clarity was vital to a newcomer, for whom English might be a second language. Thomas Jefferson’s original draft of the Declaration of Independence is clear and logical, but his committee’s modifications made it even simpler. The Federalist Papers, written in support of the Constitution, are also lucid, logical arguments, suitable for debate in a democratic nation. NEOCLASSISM: EPIC, MOCK EPIC, AND SATIRE Unfortunately, â€Å"literary† writing was not as simple and direct as political writing. When trying to write poetry, most educated authors stumbled into the pitfall of elegant neoclassicism. The epic, in particular, exercised a fatal attraction. American literary patriots felt sure that the great American Revolution naturally would find expression in the epic — a long, dramatic narrative poem in elevated language, celebrating the feats of a legendary hero. Many writers tried but none succeeded. Timothy Dwight (1752-1817), one of the group of writers known as the Hartford Wits, is an example. Dwight, who eventually became the president of Yale University, based his epic, The Conquest of Canaan (1785), on the Biblical story of Joshua’s struggle to enter the Promised Land. Dwight cast General Washington, commander of the American army and later the first president of the United States, as Joshua in his allegory and borrowed the couplet form that Alexander Pope used to translate Homer. Dwight’s epic was as boring as it was ambitious. English critics demolished it; even Dwight’s friends, such as John Trumbull (1750-1831), remained unenthusiastic. So much thunder and lightning raged in the melodramatic battle scenes that Trumbull proposed that the epic be provided with lightning rods. Not surprisingly, satirical poetry fared much better than serious verse. The mock epic genre encouraged American poets to use their natural voices and did not lure them into a bog of pretentious and predictable patriotic sentiments and faceless conventional poetic epithets out of the Greek poet Homer and the Roman poet Virgil by way of the English poets. In mock epics like John Trumbull’s good-humored M’Fingal (1776-82), stylized emotions and conventional turns of phrase are ammunition for good satire, and the bombastic oratory of the revolution is itself ridiculed. Modeled on the British poet Samuel Butler’s Hudibras, the mock epic derides a Tory, M’Fingal. It is often pithy, as when noting of condemned criminals facing hanging: No man e’er felt the halter draw With good opinion of the law. M’Fingal went into over 30 editions, was reprinted for a half-century, and was appreciated in England as well as America. Satire appealed to Revolutionary audiences partly because it contained social comment and criticism, and political topics and social problems were the main subjects of the day. The first American comedy to be performed, The Contrast (produced 1787) by Royall Tyler (1757-1826), humorously contrasts Colonel Manly, an American officer, with Dimple, who imitates English fashions. Naturally, Dimple is made to look ridiculous. The play introduces the first Yankee character, Jonathan. Another satirical work, the novel Modern Chivalry, published by Hugh Henry Brackenridge in installments from 1792 to 1815, memorably lampoons the excesses of the age. Brackenridge (1748- 1816), a Scottish immigrant raised on the American frontier, based his huge, picaresque novel on Don Quixote; it describes the misadventures of Captain Farrago and his stupid, brutal, yet appealingly human, servant Teague O’Regan. POET OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION: Philip Freneau (1752-1832). One poet, Philip Freneau, incorporated the new stirrings of European Romanticism and escaped the imitativeness and vague universality of the Hartford Wits. The key to both his success and his failure was his passionately democratic spirit combined with an inflexible temper. The Hartford Wits, all of them undoubted patriots, reflected the general cultural conservatism of the educated classes. Freneau set himself against this holdover of old Tory attitudes, complaining of â€Å"the writings of an aristocratic, speculating faction at Hartford, in favor of monarchy and titular distinctions. â€Å"Although Freneau received a fine education and was as well acquainted with the classics as any Hartford Wit, he embraced liberal and democratic causes. From a Huguenot (radical French Protestant) background, Freneau fought as a militiaman during the Revolutionary War. In 1780, he was captured and imprisoned in two British ships, where he almost died before his family managed to get him released. His poem â€Å"The British Prison Ship† is a bitter condemnation of the cruelties of the British, who wished â€Å"to stain the world with gore. † This piece and other revolutionary works, including â€Å"Eutaw Springs,† â€Å"American Liberty,† â€Å"A Political Litany,† â€Å"A Midnight Consultation,† and â€Å"George the Third’s Soliloquy,† brought him fame as the â€Å"Poet of the American Revolution. † Freneau edited a number of journals during his life, always mindful of the great cause of democracy. When Thomas Jefferson helped him establish the militant, anti-Federalist National Gazette in 1791, Freneau became the first powerful, crusading newspaper editor in America, and the literary predecessor of William Cullen Bryant, William Lloyd Garrison, and H.L. Mencken. As a poet and editor, Freneau adhered to his democratic ideals. His popular poems, published in newspapers for the average reader, regularly celebrated American subjects. â€Å"The Virtue of Tobacco† concerns the indigenous plant, a mainstay of the southern economy, while â€Å"The Jug of Rum† celebrates the alcoholic drink of the West Indies, a crucial commodity of early American trade and a major New World export. Common American characters lived in â€Å"The Pilot of Hatteras,† as well as in poems about quack doctors and bombastic evangelists. Freneau commanded a natural and colloquial style appropriate to a genuine democracy, but he could also rise to refined neoclassic lyricism in often-anthologized works such as â€Å"The Wild Honeysuckle† (1786), which evokes a sweet-smelling native shrub. Not until the â€Å"American Renaissance† that began in the 1820s would American poetry surpass the heights that Freneau had scaled 40 years earlier. Additional groundwork for later literary achievement was laid during the early years. Nationalism inspired publications in many fields, leading to a new appreciation of things American. Noah Webster (1758-1843) devised an American Dictionary, as well as an important reader and speller for the schools. His Spelling Book sold more than 100 million copies over the years. Updated Webster’s dictionaries are still standard today. The American Geography, by Jedidiah Morse, another landmark reference work, promoted knowledge of the vast and expanding American land itself. Some of the most interesting if nonliterary writings of the period are the journals of frontiersmen and explorers such as Meriwether Lewis (1774-1809) and  Zebulon Pike (1779-1813), who wrote accounts of expeditions across the Louisiana Territory, the vast portion of the North American continent that Thomas Jefferson purchased from Napoleon in 1803. WRITERS OF FICTION. The first important fiction writers widely recognized today, Charles Brockden Brown, Washington Irving, and James Fenimore Cooper, used American subjects, historical perspectives, themes of change, and nostalgic tones. They wrote in many prose genres, initiated new forms, and found new ways to make a living through literature. With them, American literature began to be read and appreciated in the United States and abroad. Charles Brockden Brown (1771-1810) Already mentioned as the first professional American writer, Charles Brockden Brown was inspired by the English writers Mrs. Radcliffe and English William Godwin. (Radcliffe was known for her terrifying Gothic novels; a novelist and social reformer, Godwin was the father of Mary Shelley, who wrote Frankenstein and married English poet Percy Bysshe Shelley. ) Driven by poverty, Brown hastily penned four haunting novels in two years: Wieland (1798), Arthur Mervyn (1799), Ormond (1799), and Edgar Huntley (1799). In them, he developed the genre of American Gothic. The Gothic novel was a popular genre of the day featuring exotic and wild settings, disturbing psychological depth, and much suspense. Trappings included ruined castles or abbeys, ghosts, mysterious secrets, threatening figures, and solitary maidens who survive by their wits and spiritual strength. At their best, such novels offer tremendous suspense and hints of magic, along with profound explorations of the human soul in extremity. Critics suggest that Brown’s Gothic sensibility expresses deep anxieties about the inadequate social institutions of the new nation. Brown used distinctively American settings. A man of ideas, he dramatized scientific theories, developed a personal theory of fiction, and championed high literary standards despite personal poverty. Though flawed, his works are darkly powerful. Increasingly, he is seen as the precursor of romantic writers like Edgar Allan Poe, Herman Melville, and Nathaniel Hawthorne. He expresses subconscious fears that the outwardly optimistic Enlightenment period drove underground. Washington Irving (1789-1859). The youngest of 11 children born to a well-to-do New York merchant family, Washington Irving became a cultural and diplomatic ambassador to Europe, like Benjamin Franklin and Nathaniel Hawthorne. Despite his talent, he probably would not have become a full-time professional writer, given the lack of financial rewards, if a series of fortuitous incidents had not thrust writing as a profession upon him. Through friends, he was able to publish his Sketch Book (1819-1820) simultaneously in England and America, obtaining copyrights and payment in both countries. The Sketch Book of Geoffrye Crayon (Irving’s pseudonym) contains his two best remembered stories, â€Å"Rip Van Winkle† and â€Å"The Legend of Sleepy Hollow. † â€Å"Sketch† aptly describes Irving’s delicate, elegant, yet seemingly casual style, and â€Å"crayon† suggests his ability as a colorist or creator of rich, nuanced tones and emotional effects. In the Sketch Book, Irving transforms the Catskill Mountains along the Hudson River north of New York City into a fabulous, magical region. American readers gratefully accepted Irving’s imagined â€Å"history† of the Catskills, despite the fact (unknown to them) that he had adapted his stories from a German source. Irving gave America something it badly needed in the brash, materialistic early years: an imaginative way of relating to the new land. No writer was as successful as Irving at humanizing the land, endowing it with a name and a face and a set of legends. The story of â€Å"Rip Van Winkle,† who slept for 20 years, waking to find the colonies had become independent, eventually became folklore. It was adapted for the stage, went into the oral tradition, and was gradually accepted as authentic American legend by generations of Americans. Irving discovered and helped satisfy the raw new nation’s sense of history. His numerous works may be seen as his devoted attempts to build the new nation’s soul by recreating history and giving it living, breathing, imaginative life. For subjects, he chose the most dramatic aspects of American history: the discovery of the New World, the first president and national hero, and the westward exploration. His earliest work was a sparkling, satirical History of New York (1809) under the Dutch, ostensibly written by Diedrich Knickerbocker (hence the name of Irving’s friends and New York writers of the day, the â€Å"Knickerbocker School†). James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) James Fenimore Cooper, like Irving, evoked a sense of the past and gave it a local habitation and a name. In Cooper, though, one finds the powerful myth of a golden age and the poignance of its loss. While Irving and other American writers before and after him scoured Europe in search of its legends, castles, and great themes, Cooper grasped the essential myth of America: that it was timeless, like the wilderness. American history was a trespass on the eternal; European history in America was a reenactment of the fall in the Garden of Eden. The cyclical realm of nature was glimpsed only in the act of destroying it: The wilderness disappeared in front of American eyes, vanishing before the oncoming pioneers like a mirage. This is Cooper’s basic tragic vision of the ironic destruction of the wilderness, the new Eden that had attracted the colonists in the first place. Personal experience enabled Cooper to write vividly of the transformation of the wilderness and of other subjects such as the sea and the clash of peoples from different cultures. The son of a Quaker family, he grew up on his father’s remote estate at Otsego Lake (now Cooperstown) in central New York State. Although this area was relatively peaceful during Cooper’s boyhood, it had once been the scene of an Indian massacre. Young Fenimore Cooper grew up in an almost feudal environment. His father, Judge Cooper, was a landowner and leader. Cooper saw frontiersmen and Indians at Otsego Lake as a boy; in later life, bold white settlers intruded on his land. Natty Bumppo, Cooper’s renowned literary character, embodies his vision of the frontiersman as a gentleman, a Jeffersonian â€Å"natural aristocrat. † Early in 1823, in The Pioneers, Cooper had begun to discover Bumppo. Natty is the first famous frontiersman in American literature and the literary forerunner of countless cowboy and backwoods heroes. He is the idealized, upright individualist who is better than the society he protects. Poor and isolated, yet pure, he is a touchstone for ethical values and prefigures Herman Melville’s Billy Budd and Mark Twain’s Huck Finn. Based in part on the real life of American pioneer Daniel Boone — who was a Quaker like Cooper — Natty Bumppo, an outstanding woodsman like Boone, was a peaceful man adopted by an Indian tribe. Both Boone and the fictional Bumppo loved nature and freedom. They constantly kept moving west to escape the oncoming settlers they had guided into the wilderness, and they became legends in their own lifetimes. Natty is also chaste, high-minded, and deeply spiritual: He is the Christian knight of medieval romances transposed to the virgin forest and rocky soil of America. The unifying thread of the five novels collectively known as the Leather-Stocking Tales is the life of Natty Bumppo. Cooper’s finest achievement, they constitute a vast prose epic with the North American continent as setting, Indian tribes as characters, and great wars and westward migration as social background. The novels bring to life frontier America from 1740 to 1804. Cooper’s novels portray the successive waves of the frontier settlement: the original wilderness inhabited by Indians; the arrival of the first whites as scouts, soldiers, traders, and frontiersmen; the coming of the poor, rough settler families; and the final arrival of the middle class, bringing the first professionals — the judge, the physician, and the banker. Each incoming wave displaced the earlier: Whites displaced the Indians, who retreated westward; the â€Å"civilized† middle classes who erected schools, churches, and jails displaced the lower-class individualistic frontier folk, who moved further west, in turn displacing the Indians who had preceded them. Cooper evokes the endless, inevitable wave of settlers, seeing not only the gains but the losses. Cooper’s novels reveal a deep tension between the lone individual and society, nature and culture, spirituality and organized religion. In Cooper, the natural world and the Indian are fundamentally good — as is the highly civilized realm associated with his most cultured characters. Intermediate characters are often suspect, especially greedy, poor white settlers who are too uneducated or unrefined to appreciate nature or culture. Like Rudyard Kipling, E. M. Forster, Herman Melville, and other sensitive observers of widely varied cultures interacting with each other, Cooper was a cultural relativist. He understood that no culture had a monopoly on virtue or refinement. Cooper accepted the American condition while Irving did not. Irving addressed the American setting as a European might have — by importing and adapting European legends, culture, and history. Cooper took the process a step farther. He created American settings and new, distinctively American characters and themes. He was the first to sound the recurring tragic note in American fiction. WOMEN AND MINORITIES Although the colonial period produced several women writers of note, the revolutionary era did not further the work of women and minorities, despite the many schools, magazines, newspapers, and literary clubs that were springing up. Colonial women such as Anne Bradstreet, Anne Hutchinson, Ann Cotton, and Sarah Kemble Knight exerted considerable social and literary influence in spite of primitive conditions and dangers; of the 18 women who came to America on the ship Mayflower in 1620, only four survived the first year. When every able-bodied person counted and conditions were fluid, innate talent could find expression. But as cultural institutions became formalized in the new republic, women and minorities gradually were excluded from them. Phillis Wheatley (c. 1753-1784) Given the hardships of life in early America, it is ironic that some of the best poetry of the period was written by an exceptional slave woman. The first African-American author of importance in the United States, Phillis Wheatley was born in Africa and brought to Boston, Massachusetts, when she was about seven, where she was purchased by the pious and wealthy tailor John Wheatley to be a companion for his wife. The Wheatleys recognized Phillis’s remarkable inte.